Lecture 9 // Identity

Theories of Identity

• ESSENTIALISM (traditional approach)
• Our biological make up makes us who we are.
• We all have an inner essence that makes us who we are.
• POST MODERN THEORISTS DISAGREE
• Post-Modern theorists are ANTI- ESSENTIALIST 

The more your nose veers from the vertical the less intelligent you are.

Anglo- teutonic people are "racially superior" to negros and irish iberian, kind of like the arian race.

Hieronymous Bosch - a flemish painter, in his painting Christ carrying the cross, the only ordinary looking people is Christ and the white people.  Chris Ofili is a black artist who painted the Virgin Mary black.  

Historical phases of Identity Douglas Kellner – Media Culture: Cultural Studies, Identity and
Politics between the Modern and the Postmodern, 1992
pre modern identity – personal identity is stable – defined
by long standing roles
Modern identity – modern societies begin to offer a wider range of social roles. Possibility to start ‘choosing’ your identity, rather than simply being born into it. People start to ‘worry’ about who they are

Post-modern identity – accepts a ‘fragmented ‘self’. Identity is constructed  

Conspicuous consumption of valuable goods is a means of reputability to the gentleman of leisure.  E.g in a modern day world people showing off their i phones and other expensive goods.  Also they do this through the use of Fashion.  The upper class will always look to wear something new to keep the distinction between their class and the lower classes.

Georg Simmel

‘The feeling of isolation
is rarely as decisive and intense when one actually finds oneself physically alone, as when one is a stranger without relations, among many physically close persons, at a party, on the train, or in the traffic of a large city’

Simmel suggests that:
because of the speed and mutability of modernity, individuals withdraw into themselves to find peace
He describes this as

‘the separation of the subjective from the objective life’ 

‘Discourse Analysis’
• Identity is constructed out of the discourses culturally available to us.
What is a discourse ?
• ‘... a set of recurring statements that define a particular cultural ‘object’ (e.g., madness, criminality, sexuality) and provide concepts and terms through which such an object can be studied and discussed.’ Cavallaro, (2001)

Possible Discourses
• Age
• Class
• Gender
• Nationality
• Race/ethnicity
• Sexual orientation
• Education
• Income

Discourses to be considered

• Class
• Nationality
• Race/ethnicity
 • Gender and sexuality 

Class

Mass Observation, a group of posh upper class people going to see how the other half live.

Slightly mocking photograph of middle class people at the beach in brighton.

Race/ Ethnicity

To be a black artist how do you portray your ethnicity.  'No woman, no cry' links with Bob Marley song and also he has used the rasta colours here.

Gender and Sexuality

‘Edmund Bergler, an American psychoanalyst

writing in the 1950s, went much further, both in

condemning the ugliness of fashion and in relating

it to sex. He recognised that the fashion industry

is the work not of women, but of men. Its

monstrosities, he argued, were a “gigantic

unconscious hoax” perpetrated on women by the

arch villains of the Cold War –male homosexuals

(for he made the vulgar assumption that all dress

designers are “queers”). Having first, in the 1920s,

tried to turn women into boys, they had latterly

expressed their secret hatred of women by forcing

them into exaggerated, ridiculous, hideous clothes’ 

Lecture 7 // Celebrity Culture

This lecture looks at: • The history of celebrity
• The relationship between photography/film/tv and celebrity
• The cultural significance of celebrities
• How contemporary identity and celebrity are
intertwined
Contemporary icons as case studies 

The Artist, 2011

Won golden globes for its portrayal of its era

Josephine Baker (1906-1975)

• Baker costumed for the Danse banane from the Folies Bergères production Un Vent de Folie in Paris in 1927 

Had a pet Cheetah which sometimes escaped into the orchestra pit.
• a muse for contemporary authors, painters, designers, and sculptors including Langston Hughes, Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Pablo Picasso, and Christian Dior. 

Josephine Baker - American mixed heritage, found fame in france for her exotic dancing, her success coincides with the Art Deco Movement which takes influence from african art.  In the second world war she worked for the resistance, using her film and performance career.  She helped people get visas and passports to help people leave france during the war.  She has a public and private persona.  There are refs to her in contemporary popular culture, Beyonce takes inspiration from her banana skirt costume.  


Marilyn Monroe

• Actress, singer,
• Relationships with Arthur Miller and the Kennedys
• Iconic as a ‘sex symbol’
• Her death freezes this status as her image will never disintegrate 

Andy Warhol- Pop Art
• Her face becomes a mask as it is endlessly repeated in publicity, the news,
• The idea that there is a different woman underneath ie: Norma Jean Baker prevails
• Circumstances of her death seem to confirm/not confirm this simultaneously as she becomes ‘myth’ 

Making a comment about how hard it is to conceive a celebrity as anything but a celebrity.

Audrey Flack’s Marilyn (1977)
• In the tradition of the 16th/17th Century Vanitas painting where objects in the image have symbollic meaning
• Photorealism- airbrush 

Elvis Presley
• Warhol uses an image of him acting the classic American hero- the cowboy
• Blurs our vision, reminds us that the image is all we can see
• His home Graceland is a place of pilgrimage for fans, then a museum after his death 

Warhols Factory photographed by Richard Avedon (1969) 

Warhol perhaps the first person to think of turning normal people into stars by photographing them.  People on the edges of society being made into stars.

The Jacksons as a brand

• Musicians /performers
• 1971 The Jackson 5 had an animated cartoon on TV
• 1976 they star in a comedy where they act as themselves 



Michael Jackson

• The changes in Michaels appearance are interpreted as reactions to the abuse he and his family suffered at the hands of their father.
• He looks less like his father by reducing his African American features: nose, skin colour, afro hair etc. 

Critical Positions on Popular Culture

Critically define ‘popular culture’

• Contrast ideas of ‘culture’ with ‘popular culture’ and ‘mass culture’

• Introduce Cultural Studies & Critical Theory

• Discuss culture as ideology

• Interrogate the social function of popular culture 

What is Culture?
• ‘One of the two or three most complicated words in the English language’
• general process of intellectual, spiritual & aesthetic development of a particular society, at a particular time
• a particular way of life
• works of intellectual and especially artistic significance’ 

Marx's Concept of Base / Superstructure 

Base

forces of production - materials, tools, workers, skills, etc.

relations of production - employer/employee, class, master/slave, etc

Superstructure

social institutions - legal, political, cultural
forms of consciousness - ideology *

‘The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles’ (Marx, Communist Manifesto) 

We live in a capitalist society with capitalist relations.  This argues that all forms of culture are a direct reflex and are conditioned by that form of material reality.

Culture is produced by the material reality of the world

4 definitions of ‘popular’
– Well liked by many people
– Inferior kinds of work
– Work deliberately setting out to win favour with the people
– Culture actually made by the people themselves 

Popular Culture is inferior to real Culture

Popularism  and trying to be commercialised, popular culture made by the masses for the masses, the direct opposite of traditional culture.

Culture made by urban youth for urban youth... What happens when that gets stolen does it become culture?

Heavy industrialisation and urbanisation, a hyper development under capitalism.  Clear class divides started to emerge.  Mass factory work, very clear who the rich were and who the poor were.  Working class area's slums and ghettos and affluent area's for the upper class.  Because of this separation an autonomous separation of the working class began, a culture made by the workers for the workers which was made for profit.  Entrepreneurs started selling and making a living off things like music halls.  What occured here was not just entertainment but a tendency to talk about working class life, political experiences and this gave birth to chartism - to give working class people the vote.

"Culture is disinterested, it doesn't have politics because it's more important than that"  Seeks to minister the diseased spirit of our times

High Culture and Anarchy or High Culture and Low Culture.

Culture polices ‘the raw and uncultivated masses’

‘The working class... raw and half developed... long lain half hidden amidst it’s poverty and squalor... now issuing from it’s hiding place to assert an Englishmans heaven born privelige to do as he likes, and beginning to perplex us by marching where it likes, meeting where it likes, breaking what it is"

Mass culture represents a threat to social authority

They argued that popular culture actually maintain the ruling class, the social system that we live in.  

Frankfurt School :
Theodore Adorno & Max Horkheimer
Reinterpreted Marx, for the 20th century – era of “late capitalism”
Defined “The Culture Industry” :
2 main products – homogeneity & predictability
“All mass culture is identical” :
‘As soon as the film begins, it is quite clear how it will end, and who will be rewarded, punished or forgotten’.
‘Movies and radio need no longer to pretend to be art. The truth, that they are just business, is made into an ideology in order to justify the rubbish they deliberately produce. ... The whole world is made to pass through the filter of the culture industry. ... The culture industry can pride itself on having energetically executed the previously clumsy transposition of art into the sphere of consumption, on making this a principle. ... film, radio and magazines make up a system which is uniform as a whole and in every part ... all mass culture is identical.’ 

‘One might generalise by saying: the technique of reproduction detaches the reproduced object from the domain of tradition. By making many reproductions it substitutes a plurality of copies for a unique existence. And in permitting the reproduction to meet the beholder or listener in his own situation, it reactivates the objects produced. These two processes lead to a tremendous shattering of tradition... Their most powerful agent is film. Its social significance, particularly in its most positive form, is inconceivable without its destructive, cathartic aspect, that is, the liquidation of the traditional value of the cultural heritage’ 

Lecture 4 // Cities and Film - Helen Clarke

Handout:

Cities and Film
Helen Clarke helen.clarke@leeds-art.ac.uk
The lecture looks as the city as represented on and in film: through both photography and in various film types (experimental silent cinema, contemporary video works, a Chaplin comedy, Film Noir and Cult Classics). In doing so it looks at the differences in the representation and theorization of urban existence in first Modernism and then Postmodernism.
This inevitably involves consideration of the body in the city. Beginning with Simmel, as the Frankfurt School do, the figure of the flaneur is explored in art, literature and in feminist theory.
To investigate or illustrate some of these ideas, the lecture offers readings of photographers like Sophie Calle, Joel Meyerwitz and Phillip Lorca di Corcia whose work can be critically investigated through theory.
Finally the lecture proposes a post Postmodern city where the body, the psyche and the city are intertwined by the threat (whether experienced or internalised) of terrorism. Lastly looking at how this may be represented through photography, film and video, the lecture considers Citizen Journalism as a visual response which democratises image making and starts to define the experience of the city.
We need to remember that photography established itself in a period when the growth of the city and industry had already provoked a formidable literature and art in response to the increasing influence of urban areas, especially cities such as London, Paris and New York. Photography takes it place in this process, but it does so in a consistently active sense, simultaneously responding to the variety and multiplicity of urban life and experience, and to the question s of how urban space was to be perceived and represented. In brief, its underlying response has been in relation to the visual complexity of a city as both an image and an experience.
(Clarke:1997: 75)

Biblography
•Cityscapes of modernity: critical explorations by David Frisby
•Art of America: Modern Dreams (2/3) Andrew Grahame Dixon BBC 4 21/11/11
•De Grazia, Victoria (2005), Irresistible Empire: America's Advance Through 20th-Century Europe, Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press
•Susan Buck-Morss, The Dialectics of Seeing: Walter Benjamin and the Arcades Project (1989)
•Grahame Clarke (1997) The Photograph, Chapter 5 The city in photography
•http://hereisnewyork.org/
•Art in the Age of Terrorism, Terrible Beauties, Bernadette Buckley, (2005)
Fredrick Jameson Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism Verso, 1991 


Urban Sociology

Lewis Hine (1932)  the resistance of individual to being levelled, swallowed up in the social - technological mechanism.  Geor Simmel the metropolis and mental life 1903.

Architect Louis Sullivan (1856- 1924) - "Form follows function."

• creator of the modern skyscraper,
• an influential architect and critic of the Chicago School
• mentor to Frank Lloyd Wright,
• Guaranty Building was built in 1894 by Adler & Sullivan in Buffalo NY 
very organised, a building starts to dictate how a person uses it

Carson Pririe Scott store in Chicago (1904)

• Skyscrapers represent the upwardly mobile city of business opportunity
• Fire cleared buildings in Chicago in 1871 and made way for Louis Sullivan new aspirational buildings 

Fordism: mechanised labour relations

• Coined by Antonio Gramsci in his essay "Americanism and Fordism”
• "the eponymous manufacturing system designed to spew out standardized, low-cost goods and afford its workers decent enough wages to buy them” (De Grazia: 2005:4) 

Stock market crash of 1929

• Factories close and unemployment goes up dramatically
• Leads to “the Great Depression”
• Margaret Bourke-White 

Flaneur
• he term flâneur comes from the French masculine noun flâneur—which has the basic meanings of "stroller", "lounger", "saunterer", "loafer"— which itself comes from the French verb flâner, which means "to stroll" 
upperclass gentleman who wanders around town and observes things leisurely.

Charles Baudelaire
• The nineteenth century French poet Charles Baudelaire proposes a version of the flâneur— that of "a person who walks the city in order to experience it".
• Art should capture this
• Simultaneously apart from and a part of the crowd 

Walter Benjamin
• Adopts the concept of the urban observer as an analytical tool and as a lifestyle as seen in his writings
• (Arcades Project, 1927– 40), Benjamin’s final, incomplete book about Parisian city life in the 19th century
• Berlin Chronicle/Berlin Childhood (memoirs)

Susan Sontag On Photography

• Thephotographerisan armed version of the solitary walker reconnoitering, stalking, cruising the urban inferno, the voyeuristic stroller who discovers the city as a landscape of voluptuous extremes. Adept of the joys of watching, connoisseur of empathy, the flâneur finds the world 'picturesque.' (pg. 55) 

Lecture 3 // Panopticism

Panopticism - institutions and institutional power.

Social Control and the way society effects our actions and emotions.

Panopticon is a building

Discipline

The Great Confinement (late 1609), there was no name for madness, people were accepted as happy fools, they were allowed to live with us, there was no separation.  A new sensibility emerged towards work and an anxiety began to emerge about people being useless to society/ a problem.  Houses of Correction started to get built, a bit like workhouses or prisons.  The mad, criminals, drunkards, diseased, single mothers, vagabondz, and they were put to work or they were beaten.  An exercise used as a moral reform to make the people better.

The houses of Correction, people began to think was a mistake because they all started to corrupt each other.  Specialist institutions replaced them - asylums, prisons and hospitals.  These worked in a different way to correct people, instead of physical abuse to get them to work they used minor tactics.  They were treated like children, if they behaved they were praised.  Subtly training people to behave - modifying attitudes and personalities.

New forms of specialist knowledge emerges at this time, biology, psychiatry, medicine - legitimise the practices of hospitals, doctors, psychiatrists.  In these institutions you take responsibility for your actions.  Punishment shows power of the state - a reminder to everyone not to do anything wrong.

New form of discipline 

Lecture 2// The Gaze and the Media

The Gaze and The Media
Helen Clarke
helenclarke@leed-art.ac.uk
The lecture introduces theories of The Gaze, through the writings of John Berger, Laura Mulvey, Rosalind Coward and Professor Griselda Pollock.
It proposes that The Male Gaze identified by Mulvey through film, and Berger through painting, is in fact synonymous with The Gaze of The Media in contemporary western culture.
The lecture provides readings which follow the message of the key texts and encourages the questioning of our contemporary privileging of the visual in the western construction of desire.
It also looks at the impact this has in the everyday, and how the prevalence of the male Gaze normalizes these perceptions of women and their bodies and is internalized by women themselves. This is a complex area of investigation, and rather than a simple ‘reversal’ of the Gaze onto the male body, the lecture seeks to address and question image makers as to the possibility of an alternative portrayal of the body.
FURTHER READING:
John Berger (1972) Ways of Seeing, Chapter3
Victor Burgin (1982) Thinking Photography
Rosalind Coward (1984) The Look
Laura Mulvey (1973) Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema Griselda Pollock (1982) Old Mistresses
‘The preoccupation with visual images strikes women in a very particular way. For looking is not a neutral activity. Human beings don’t all look at things in the same way, innocently as it were. In this culture, the look is largely controlled by men. Privileged in general in this society, men also control the visual media. The film and television industries are dominated by men, as is the advertising industry. The photographic profession is no less a bastion of the values of male professionalism. While I don’t wish to suggest there’s an intrinsically male way of making images, there can be little doubt that entertainment as we know it is crucially predicated on a masculine investigation of women, and a circulation of women’s images for men.’
Rosalind Coward (1984) The Look 

‘according to usage and conventions which are at last being questioned but have by no means been overcome - men act and women appear. Men look at women. Women watch themselves being looked at’   (Berger 1972), It's difficult for women to conceive themselves as not being looked.  Women constantly survey their idea of femininity.

Female body with a mirror showing reflection of the woman's face, this makes it more acceptable for us to look at her body because she's not looking right back at us.

Alexander Gabanel, mythical representation of a woman, sentimental and virginal painting, she covers her own eyes/face with hands, this is a device used in advertising and photography quite regularly.  Concentration on her body, not on her as a person.

Sophia Dahl for Opium, reclining figure, 3/4 picture plane taken up by the body.  Legs parted and hand on breast - more contemporary, not allowed for use on billboards, magazines etc so they flipped it on its side and more attention is drawn to the face.

Berger puts forward the idea that Titians's Venus of Urbino, 1538 is a much more passive painting.  Manet - 'Olympia' 1863  he identifies her as a prostitute, neck ties were common for prostitutes.

Contemporary artists have used similar poses to challenge old fashioned.

Manet - Bar the the Rolio Bergeres

Jeff Wall 'Picture for Women' 1979

Coward, R 1984 (1984)The camera in contemporary media has been put to use as an extension of the male gaze at women on the streets 

Eva Herzigova, 1994, THe Figure looking down

Coward R 1984, The profusion of images which characterise comtemporary society couldd be seen as an obsessive distancing a form of peeping tom 

With male bodies within advertising they challenge your gaze


Lara Croft, over sexualised object

Artemisia Gentileschi, Judith Beheading Holofernes, 1620.  Alternative characterisation of an active female role, the gaze is challenged.  Her arms are bulky and made to look strong.

Contemporary Artist challenging the idea of gaze, Cindy Sherman, "Untitled Film Still 6" 1977-79, we are looking at her face, she has a mirror in hand, Shermans work interrupts the gaze

Barbara Kruger - 'Your gaze hits the side of my face'  1981, turning away from the male gaze, the figure in the images in literally just turning away

Sarah Lucas - 'Eating a Banana' 1990 clearly implies sexual act, picturing here the self-consciousness.  The side glance is almost saying ' what have you got to say about this'

Self Portratit with Fried Eggs 1996

Tracey Emin 'Money Photo' 2001 self referential work is a self-critisism of herself.

The gaze in the media

Amanda Knox is a witch?  Sorry are we living in 1468? 

The idea that women are natural liars has a long pedigree. The key document in this centuries-long tradition is the notorious witch- hunter's manual, the Malleus Maleficarum or The Hammer of Witches, which was commissioned by Pope Innocent VIII. The book was written by two Dominican monks and published in 1486. It unleashed a flood of irrational beliefs about women's "dual" nature. "A woman is beautiful to look upon, contaminating to the touch, and deadly to keep," the authors warned. They also claimed that "all witchcraft comes from carnal lust, which is in women insatiable".
It's not difficult to see these myths lurking behind Pacelli's description of Knox: "She was a diabolical, satantic, demonic she-devil. She was muddy on the outside and dirty on the inside. She has two souls, the clean one you see before you and the other." The lawyer's claim that she was motivated by "lust" could have come straight from the Malleus, which insists that women are more "carnal" than men. 

Level 5 Lecture Notes - Lecture 1// Psychoanalysis

Handout:

Psychoanalysis A: The development of the psyche from birth, B: The development and role of the Unconscious in our everyday lives, C: The development of gender identity (psycho-sexual identity), D: Understanding the complexities of human subjectivity

Psychoanalysis is not only a form of therapy but a study of human subjectivity. Psychoanalysis provides us with a theory of the unconscious, sexuality and the development of the Ego. It can tell us a lot about why we are the way we are giving us insight into our daily goings-on. It can also be a great tool for gathering a greater understanding of Art & Design. Key Psychoanalysts: Sigmund Freud, Jacques Lacan, Melanie Klein, Carl Jung, Juliet Mitchell, Luce Irigaray, Julia Kristeva

The Unconscious: Created through infancy to protect our conscious selves from events, ideas and thoughts that are not acceptable to consciousness...Continues to affect our conscious selves in SOME* ways...The unconscious is chaotic, without order and without language...Makes itself present through ticks, slips and symptoms (e.g. Freudian slip)...Hysteria patients developed debilitating symptoms as a result of experiences or feelings that had become repressed.

Stages of development: Our development into willful, conscious beings is full of confusing, contradictory and misapprehended thoughts and ideas...An attempt to make sense of both our biological/instinctual self and our logical/thinking self...We create associations and assumptions through sense data...often incorrectly...The developing child goes through stages: oral, anal and phallic...Also, the child develops preconceptions that must be dealt with in order to develop successfully – oedipus complex, castration complex, penis envy.

Psycho-sexual identity: Oedipus complex – sexual/love feelings towards mother and resentment of father...through childhood dependence...feelings of love, rivalry, jealousy all mixed...confusing feelings ‘to want’ vs. ‘to be wanted’...Development of both masculine and feminine identities in relation to the penis/phallus (having or not having)...Castration complex – the boy fears castration while the girl accepts that she has already been castrated. (the phallus as a symbol of power)...Penis-envy – the girl experiences this when she begins to realise she does not have a penis...not as a sexual organ but a way of identifying with the father-figure...Presence/absence – both create possible negative feelings: the boy fears his castration (his powerlessness) while the girl feels that she is missing something.

The Uncanny: ‘Unhomely’...Something that is simultaneously unnatural yet familiar...Something that was supposed to remain hidden which has come to the open....Where the boundary between fantasy

and reality break down...Unconscious vs. Uncanny Models of the psyche: Unconscious, Preconscious, Conscious....Id, Ego, Super-Ego The Mirror Stage (Lacanian): The child’s recognition of itself in reflection (in objects or other people) signifies a split or alienation – it is seen as both subject and other....Rivalry – while the child may recognise it’s own image it is still limited in movement and dexterity....Thus...resulting in the formation of Ego which aids (and continues to aid) a reconciliation of body and image/subject and other....Captation – the process by which the child is at once absorbed and repelled by the image of itself (the specular image) The Lacanian Unconscious: ‘The unconscious is structured like a language’...That’s not to say that the unconscious has a language but its structure is LIKE a language....The unconscious is the discourse of the Other....Highlighting the ways in which meaning in encoded within linguistic signs – written or spoken words....Unconscious details are encoded in various ways as they slip into consciousness. The Lacanian Phallus: Not the biological penis but a symbol of power/order attained through its associated LACK – the potential of lack (male) and the actual lack (female)...Masculinity/femininity are not biological definitions but symbolic positions...Our interactions with the symbolic phallus provides a ‘speaking position in culture’ / within the symbolic order - a: relating to the signifying nature of the phallus b: our sexual identity informed through the phallus. Lacan’s Orders of reality: The Real - That which cannot be symbolised/signified...Where our most basic, animal selves exist. The Imaginary - The order which exists before symbols and signification...Where the Ego is born and continues to develop...No clear distinctions between self and others/subject and object. The Symbolic - ‘The order of the Other’...Exists outside ourselves – language exists before and outside of us...The order that allows us to exist within a culture of others.  simonjones@leeds-art.ac.uk

Notes from Seminar:

Psychoanalysis - a study of the unconscious human mind

Oedais Complex - repressed memories, emotions, repressed desires

Castration Anxiety - boys scared they'll get their penis castrated

Penis Envy - penis means power, girls envy the dominant male figure

ID - Primal Urges

Ego - Personality

Super ego - Controlling Voice

Consciousness

Pre-conscious

Unconscious

Edward Bernays - nephew of Freud was an advertiser, controlling the masses by convincing people they need something they don't by using the unconscious mind. 

President of American Smoking/Tobacco asked Edward Bernays whether he could make it acceptable for women to smoke, as that could double his target market.  Connecting cigarettes to penis envy.

Bermays organised for a group of debutantes/suffragettes to light up cigarettes while parading at the same time to represent 'torches of freedom.'

After the war, America was generating more and more goods and there was no market for the produce because everyone already had what they needed.  Bermays introduced people to desire - Mans desire with overshadow his needs.  The beginning of Consumerism.

To convince people to buy more, Bermays advertised things using the knowledge of his cousin, Freud.  

Cars - symbol of male sexuality

Clothes - a way of expressing your inner self

People were made to believe that they needed things, Bermays had created a new way of controlling the masses.

Capitalist societies need to keep improving and making more money or there becomes a recession.  American Consumerism - they believe they're free because they can buy things they want (commodities) and they think it will make them happy, like the beautiful pictures the advertisements paint.

Cigarettes are no longer allowed to be associated with glamour, sport, success in business, masculinity or femininity (marlboro man/suffragettes), also advertisements should not seek to actively persuade people to start smoking.

A good example of advertising without these are the one's for Silk Cut Cigarettes.  As the name sounds quite feminine they had to broaden their target market by using freud's theories within adverting to convince men to purchase the cigarettes.  You can see that all images are made quite sexual.

Lecture 13 - Visual Communication Lecture

'The Rhetoric of Image'


Images drawn from popular culture - Roland Barthes studied this in great detail.


Denotation - what we can see in the image// the visuals
Connotations - information concerning the background of the image// knowledge we already have about the image



http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/S4B/sem06.html
http://98.131.80.43/home/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/barthes_rhetoricofimage.pdf
http://www.scribd.com/doc/13270483/Barthes-ImageMusicText



Example 1

Denotation:  2 men, 4 women sitting on guilded sofa


Connotations:  TOWIE, tv program, fake people, fake tan, hair extenstions, too much money


Example 2

Denotation:  Man smiling wearing smart clothes, blue sky, standing in front of a building with a dome.

Connotations:  Barak O'Bama, standing in front of the white house built in the style of old greek architecture.

Domes and and Pantheons have a great meaning of power and knowledge.  Symbolises western society and democracy.  The 'Dome' was brought to Europe by the Romans who were known for their great knowledge and organisation.

Example 3

The Reichstag in Berlin was a political building relating to the Nazi Regime until after Germany's Reunification in the 1960's.  The building had the typical look of ancient greek architecture with the dome and the pantheons.  As the Reichstag was massively influenced by the Nazi Regime it was decided that it needed something changed, to create new memories of the building.  The artist Christo was commissioned to wrap the building in silk.